modelling obtained, thus far, by applying the basic principles now have a choice of alternative models to work with, which can be built using data. The ideal solution probably involves a combination of the two approaches to get the best of both worlds. But, and this is certainly worth repeating, research fields that have not been mentioned here should also be retained, for the sake of encouraging originality. Along similar lines, although taking a slightly different tack, through the 3IA institutes it would also be advisable to encourage interdisciplinary research, of which no mention has yet been made. Interdisciplinary The multidisciplinary implications of AI have been touched on, calling both for fully- fledged joint research, rather than simply applying AI techniques to other disciplines, and, at the same time, training in AI for students and researchers in other subjects, to enable them to attain a genuinely twin skill set. Depending on the teams available (and willing) locally, each 3IA institute will focus on a small number of areas already being probed in its ecosystem, from HER to entrepreneurship, which it will be able to bring on board. The target areas may, for example, have to do with the social sciences, economics and law, physics and chemistry, biology and health, ecology and sustainable development, computer-aided engineering, the human-machine interface or culture for example. One particular area is the social sciences, because of the game-changer that AI is proving for the whole of society, which is naturally raising all sorts of ethical issues that come within its purview (see the section specifically devoted to this subject). All 3IA institute stakeholders will need to be made aware of such issues insofar as they can take different forms depending on the area we are dealing with. Bringing Together Researchers, Students and Businesses Researchers The 3IA institutes will welcome world-renowned French researchers, drawn by the opportunity to return home, by the French culture or by the scientific reputation of their fellow researchers. They will also be tasked with rekindling the possibility of a bright future in France for young researchers who have received a world-class French education. The perception that public research, though earnings are insufficient, offers up significant scope for freedom, needs to be challenged. First, because the freedom that researchers in the cutting-edge R&D laboratories of the GAFAMs is real enough—even if it varies from employer to employer. Second, because public researchers' freedom is seriously hampered by the need to fund their research programmes. They are spending increasing amounts of time responding to calls for 66